ilization is not responsible. Rousseau's social philosophy fails the test, and the essentially confused notion of nature which Rousseau bequeathed to the contemporary world is exposed for the fraud that it is. Moreover, the irony implicit in Ralph's inadequacy is extended to the other characters, either as they participate in the same inadequacy or as they question symbolically the solution offered for human ills by Ralph's faith in Rousseauvian democracy. Piggy participates in the "grand design" of restoration. As a figure of the Enlightenment, he cannot accept the extremes of romanticism, and he votes for Ralph only "grudgingly"; but he will use the more popular romantic concept of government and will try to direct ft. Yet, even with his discerning rational assessment of the problem of forming a government for the refugees, his inherent weaknesses are evident Ultimately, he is destroyed, not because his intellectual gifts are depraved, but because he falls into the mistaken belief that they are sufficient unto themselves. Piggy is intelligent enough, for example, to question Ralph's blind faith in rescue by the military (a scathing commentary on the Western democracies' current worship at the shrine of Cape Canaveral), but he remains blind to the limitations of his own reason. Jack and Simon, on the other hand, are not taken in by the Rousseauvian solution. Jack's approach to the human condition is much too twisted for even the remotest comparison with the idealism, fanciful though it is, implicit in Rousseau; Simon's view of humanity is so penetrated with realistic self-appraisal that he transcends the idealism of the French reformer. Jack descends to the subhuman; Simon soars to the superhuman. While Ralph and Piggy exemplify ironically the "noble savage," Jack and Simon provide the necessary counterpoint; Jack exploits the savagery, and Simon explores the nobility. And it is probably through the figure of Jack that William Golding pronounces his severest condemnation of the romantic myth of human progress. For, in the last analysis, it is the dictator who has benefited most from Rousseau's social view. When man's efforts toward progress and eventual fulfillment, however altruistic his motivation, proceed from sloppy thinking, then brute force takes over to direct the course of progress and subverts even the good in human nature to its own destructive ends. Yet, Golding is not interested merely in the altruism or the subversion; between these two forces in contemporary civilization he places the figure of Simon. He introduces him to the reader in somewhat melodramatic fashion: the boy faints. In this, the first of Simon's actions, we have a possible ironic twist on Swinburne's famous line: "Thou hast conquer'd, O pale Galilean; the world has grown gray from thy breath." It is obvious from Simon's subsequent history that he is a Christ-figure; and the romantic view of humanity proposed by Rousseau has so infiltrated every aspect of life in the contemporary world that even Christ is seen through the rose-colored glasses of sentimentality, which is the logical and real successor to romanticism. Thus, the Christ of Lord of the Flies is the "pale Galilean"; yet it is this same weak Christ who, in the first act he performs, forces a concession from Jack, and the choir boys are allowed to rest The irony is evident: even a weak Christ is more than a strong dictator.4 Further, when Simon announces his name (and his name has the strongest biblical overtones), Jack says: "We've got to decide about being rescued." Immediately, Simon is linked, however vaguely, with the idea of salvation. After the boys have elected Ralph as leader by "this toy of voting," Jack, Simon and Ralph begin exploring the mountain. This section of the novel is crucial, for it is here that Golding gives his abbreviated ironical summary of the romantic view of human progress. The passage needs analysis in depth (impossible in an article of this length), but it should be pointed out that Golding has chosen as explorers those who have dominated the history of man: the totalitarian, the parliamentarian and the mystic-poet And, as is clear from the text, Simon is the realist of the triumvirate. When the boys examine the bushes on the mountain, Simon accepts them for what they are. Ralph and Jack are concerned only with how the buds can be used That Golding's figure of religious faith accepts reality as it is provides an interesting comment on the limited approaches of the parliamentarian and the dictator. As we follow Simon through the novel, we discover that he is the mystic who separates himself from the others to ponder the mysteries of existence. Simon is the carpenter who continues building the shelters after the other boys have abandoned the work; Simon feeds the "littluns"; Simon encounters the beast in all its loathsomeness and does not succumb to the beast's temptation to despair. This encounter is the boy's Gethsemane: he comes face to face with evil, recognizes it for what it is, and, despite the agony and horror of the meeting, he is neither defeated 4.Simon's martyrdom, however, indicates that the saint or Christ-like personage (in spite of his spiritual strength) fails to rescue man from the nightmare of history.-Eds. nor intimidated by it. Immediately after he recovers consciousness, he ascends the mountain to free the dead pilot, whose parachute lines have become entangled in the rocks. In other words, Simon climbs the mountain to free "fallen man." He returns then to the boys to announce the good news; they need no longer fear the beast. But the group will not listen to him. Like the One in whose place he stands symbolically, Simon is murdered during a religious festival- the diabolical liturgy of the pig. His death occurs while the island world cowers under the lash of a gigantic storm. And it is only after Simon has actually died that the dead man in the parachute is finally freed and washed out to sea, the sea which is Golding's symbol of mystery, not chaos. Finally, Simon has his symbolic hour of glorification: his body is surrounded by "moonbeam-bodied creatures with fiery eyes"; gleaming in this unearthly phosphorescence, he is carried gently out to sea. And it is difficult not to recognize the hint of a resurrection motif here, for the pattern is that of the hero carried through the waters to his apotheosis. Lord of the Flies, as I have suggested, is not an optimistic novel, but at least it is pessimistic about the right things. It states quite clearly that the time has come for the Western world to abandon its fantastic belief in the Rousseauvian concept of the natural goodness of the human species, which goodness must lead inevitably to the total perfection of the race. It shows what happens to scientific man, when he trusts only in the activity of his unaided reason. It castigates the Western democracies for their blind acceptance of salvation through militarism. It pictures the tragic destruction of any society which nourishes and exalts the dictator. Ultimately, it presents the awesome spectacle of a world which, not satisfied with murdering Simon, continues to neglect the significance of his sacrifice. But William Golding's world is not merely pessimistic. There is goodness in his characters; there is order in his universe.5 However, like all authors who have tried their 5.It might well be noted, however, that the goodness and the order are overcome in every instance. True, Ralph survives and he steps forward to announce himself to the rescuer" as the leader, but the rescue is decidedly ironic; the boys are freed from primitive and childish militarism only by sophisticated adult militarism.-Eds. hand at the intellectual exercise we call fable, he wants to teach man some hard truths about his own .nature. In the complexity and ambiguity of a highly elaborated symbolism, he has reminded modern man of the fact of original sin. This is a reminder that we all need every so often. In a later novel, The Inheritors, Golding places the following ironic words in the mouth of one character: "People understand each other." Lord of the Flies answers: "Perhaps; but not well enough." "Men of a Smaller Growth": A Psychological Analysis of William Golding's Lord of the Flies1 CLAIRE ROSENFIELD When an author consciously dramatizes Freudian theory- and dramatizes it successfully-only the imaginative recreation of human behavior rather than the structure of ideas is apparent. In analyzing William Golding's Lord of the Flies, the critic should assume that Golding knows psychological literature,2 and must then attempt to show now an author's knowledge of theory can vitalize his prose and characterization. The plot itself is uncomplicated; so simple, indeed, that one wonders how it so effortlessly absorbs the burden of meaning. During some unexplained man-made holocaust a plane, evacuating a group of children, crashes on the shore of a tropical island. All adults are conveniently killed. The narrative follows the children's gradual return to the amorality of childhood, a non-innocence which makes them small savages. Or we might make the analogy to the childhood of races and compare the child 1.This essay appeared in Literature and Psychology, 11 (Autumn, 1961), 93-101, and is reprinted in a revised version here by permission of the author and the editor, Leonard F. Manheim. 2.Note Golding's comment that he has read "absolutely no Freud" in "Lord of the Campus," Time, LXXIX (June 22, 1962), 64. Reprinted in this volume, p. 285.-Eds. to the primitive. Denied the sustaining and repressing authority of parents, church, and state, the boys form a new culture, the development of which reflects that of the genuine primitive society, evolving its gods and demons, its rituals and taboos, its whole social structure. On the level of pure narrative, the action proceeds from the gradual struggle between Ralph and Jack, the two oldest boys, for precedence. Consistent clusters of imagery imply that one boy is godlike, the other satanic-thus making a symbolic level of meaning by transforming narrative events into an allegorical struggle between the forces of Good and those of Evil. Ralph is the natural leader by virtue of his superior height, his superior strength, his superior beauty. His mild expression proclaims him "no devil." He possesses the symbol of authority, the conch, or sea shell, which the children use to assemble their miniature councils. Golding writes, "The being that had blown . . . [the conch] had sat waiting for them on the platform with the delicate thing balanced on his knees, was set apart." Jack, on the other hand. is described in completely antithetical terms; he is distinguished by his ugliness and his red hair, a traditional demonic attribute. He first appears as the leader of a church choir, which "creature-like" marches in two columns behind him. All members of the choir wear black; "their bodies, from throat to ankle, were hidden by black cloaks." 3 Ralph initially blows the conch to discover how many children have escaped death in the plane crash. As Jack approaches with his choir from the "darkness of the forest," he cannot see Ralph, whose back is to the sun. The former is, symbolically, sun-blinded. These two are very obviously intended to recall God and the Devil, whose confrontation, in the history of Western religions, establishes the moral basis for all actions. But, as Freud reminds us, "metaphysics" becomes "metapsychology";4 gods and devils are "nothing other than processes projected into the outer world." 5 If Ralph is a projection of man's good impulses from which we derive the authority figures-whether god, king, or father 3.P. 16. All page references are to this edition of Lord of the Flies and will hereafter be noted in parentheses in the text. 4.Sigmund Freud, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, as quoted by Ernest Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (New York: Basic Books, 1957), III, 53. 5. Ibid. -who establish the necessity for our valid ethical and social action, then Jack becomes an externalization of the evil instinctual forces of the unconscious; the allegorical has become the psychological. The temptation is to regard the island on which the children are marooned as a kind of Eden, uncorrupted and Eve-less. But the actions of the children negate any romantic assumptions about childhood innocence. Even though Golding himself momentarily becomes a victim of his Western culture and states at the end that Ralph wept for the "end of innocence," events have simply supported Freud's conclusion that no child is innocent. On a fourth level, Ralph is every man-or every child-and his body becomes the battleground where reason and instinct struggle, each to assert itself. For to regard Ralph and Jack as Good and Evil, as I do in the previous paragraph, is to ignore the role of the child Piggy, who in the child's world of make-believe is the outsider. Piggy's composite description not only manifests his difference from the other boys; it also reminds the reader of the stereotype image of the old man who has more-than-human wisdom: he is fat, inactive because asthmatic, and generally reveals a disinclination for physical labor. Because he is extremely near-sighted, he wears thick glasses- a further mark of his difference. As time passes, the hair of the other boys grows with abandon. "He was the only boy on the island whose hair never seemed to grow. The rest were shock-headed, but Piggy's hair still lay in wisps over his head as though baldness were his natural state, and this imperfect covering would soon go, like the velvet on a young stag's antlers" (59). In these images of age and authority we have a figure reminiscent of the children's past - the father. Moreover, like the father he counsels common sense; he alone leavens with a reasonable gravity the constant exuberance of the others for play or for play at hunting. When they scamper off at every vague whim, he scornfully comments, " Like a pack of kids. " Ungrammatically but logically he tries to allay the "littluns'' fear of a "beast" "Life is scientific, that's what it is. ... I know there isn't no beast-not with claws and all that, I mean-but I know there isn't no fear, either'" (77). He has excessive regard for the forms of order: the conch must be held by a child before that child can speak at councils. When the others neglect responsibility, fail to build shelters, swim in the pools or play in the sand or hunt, allow the signal fire on the mountain to go out or get out of hand and burn up half the island, he seconds Ralph by admonishing the others vigorously and becomes more and more of a spoilsport who robs play of its illusions, like the adult who interrupts the game. Ralph alone recognizes Piggy's superior intelligence, but wavers between what he knows to be wise and the group acceptance his egocentricity demands. Finally, Piggy's role-as man's reasoning faculties and as a father-derives some of its complexity from the fact that the fire which the children foster and guard on the mountain in the hope of communicating with the adult world is lighted with his glasses. In classical mythology, after all, fire brought civilization-and, hence, repression-to man. As the hold of civilization weakens, the new community becomes more and more irrational, and its irrationality is marked by Piggy's progressive blindness. An accident following an argument between Ralph and Jack causes one of the lenses of Piggy's glasses to break. When the final breach between the two occurs and Piggy supports Ralph, his remaining lens is stolen in a night raid by Jack. This is a parody of the traditional fire theft, which was to provide light and warmth for mankind. After this event Piggy must be led by Ralph, When he is making his final plea for his glasses-reasoned as always-he is struck on the head by a rock and fails. "Piggy fell forty feet and landed on his back on that square, red rock in the sea. His head opened and stuff came out and turned red. Piggy's arms and legs twitched a bit, like a pig's after it has been killed" (167). What Golding emphasizes here is the complete animality to which Piggy is reduced, His mind is destroyed; his body is subject to motor responses alone; he is "like a pig after it has been killed." The history of the child Piggy on the island dramatizes in terms of the individual the history of the entire group. When they first assemble to investigate their plight, they treat their island isolation as a temporary phenomenon. They are, after all, still children, wanting only to play games until they are interrupted by the action of parents, until the decisions of their elders take them from make-believe to the actuality of school or food or sleep; until they are rescued, as it were, from "play." This microcosm of the great world seems to them to be a fairy land. A kind of glamour was spread over them and the scene and they were conscious of the glamour and made happy by it (22). The coral was scribbled in the sea as though a giant had bent down to reproduce the shape of the island in a flowing, chalk line but tired before he had finished (25). "This is real exploring," said Jack. "I'll bet nobody's been here before" (23). Echoes and birds flew, white and pink dust floated, the forest further down shook as with the passage of an enraged monster: and then the island was still (24). They compare this reality which as yet they do not accept as reality to their reading experiences: it is Treasure Island or Coral Island or like pictures from their travel books. This initial reaction reaffirms the pattern of play which Johan Huizinga establishes in Homo Ludens6 In its early stages their play has no cultural or moral function; it is simply a "stepping out of real life into a temporary sphere of activity." 7 Ironically, the child of Lord of the Flies who thinks he is "only pretending" or that this is "only for fun" does not realize that his play is the beginning of the formation of a new society which has regressed to a primitive state, with all its emphasis upon taboo and communal action. What begins by being like other games in having a distinct "locality and duration" 8 apart from ordinary life is-or becomes-reality. The spatial separation necessary for the make-believe of the game is represented first by the island. In this new world the playground is further narrowed: not only are their actions limited by the island, but also the gatherings of the children are described as a circle at several points, a circle from which Piggy is excluded: For the moment the boys were a closed circuit of sympathy with Piggy outside (18). They became a circle or boys round a camp fire and even Ralph and Piggy were half-drawn in (67). Piggy approximates the spoilsport who "robs the play of its illusion," 9 who reminds them of space and time outside the charmed circle, who demands responsibility. 6.Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955). 7.Ibid.,p.8. 8.Ibid.,p.9. 9.Ibid.,p.7. The games of the beginning of the novel have a double function: they, first of all, reflect the child's attitude toward play as a temporary cessation from the activities imposed by the adult world; but, like the games played before the formation of civilization, they anticipate the ritual which reveals a developing society. So the children move from voluntary play to ritual, from "only pretending" to reality, from representation or dramatization to identification. The older strictures imposed by parents are soon forgotten-but every now and then a momentary remembrance of past prohibitions causes restraint. One older child hides in order to throw stones at a younger one. Yet there was a space around Henry, perhaps six yards in diameter, into which he dare not throw. Here, invisible yet strong, was the taboo of the old life. Round the squatting child was the protection of parents and school and policemen and the law (57). Jack hesitates when, searching for meat, he raises his knife to kill his first pig. The pause was only long enough for them to understand what an enormity the downward stroke would be. Then the piglet tore loose from the creepers and scurried into the undergrowth. . . . "Why didn't you-?" They knew very well why he hadn't: because of the enormity of the knife descending and cutting into living flesh; because of the unbearable blood (27). The younger children first, then gradually the older ones, like primitives in the childhood of races, begin to people the darkness of night and forest with spirits and demons which had previously appeared only in their dreams or fairy tales. Now there are no comforting mothers to dispel the terrors of the unknown. They externalize these fears into the figure of a "beast." Once the word "beast" is mentioned, the menace of the irrational becomes overt; name and thing become one. Simply to mention the dreaded creature is to incur its wrath. At one critical council when the first communal feeling begins to disintegrate, Ralph cries, "If only they could send us something grown-up ... a sign or something" (87). And a sign does come from the outside. That night, unknown to the children, a plane is shot down and its pilot parachutes dead to earth and is caught in the rocks on the mountain. It requires no more than the darkness of night together with the shadows of the forest vibrating in the signal fire to distort the tangled corpse with its expanding silk parachute into a demon that must be appeased. Ironically, the fire of communication does touch this object of the grown-up world, only to foster superstition. But the assurances of the civilized world provided by the nourishing and protective parents are no longer available. Security in this new situation can only be achieved by establishing new rules, new rituals to reassert the cohesive-ness of the group. During the first days the children, led by Jack, play at hunting. But eventually the circle of the playground extends to the circle of the hunted and squealing pig seeking refuge which itself anticipates the circle of consecrated ground where the children perform the new rites of the kill. The first hunt accomplishes its purpose: the blood of the animals is spilled; the meat used for food. But because Jack and his choir undertake this hunt, they desert the signal fire, the case of which is dictated by the common-sense desire for rescue; it goes out and a ship passes the island. Later the children re-enact the killing with one boy, Maurice, assuming the role of the pig running its frenzied circle. The others chant in unison: "Kill the pig. Cut her throat. Bash her in." At this dramatic representation each child is still aware that this is a display, a performance. He is never "so beside himself that he loses consciousness of ordinary reality."10 Each time they re-enact the same event, however, their behavior becomes more frenzied, more cruel, less like dramatization or imitation than identification. The chant then becomes, "Kill the beast. Cut his throat. Spill his blood." It is as if the first event, the pig's actual death, is forgotten in the recesses of time; it is as if it happened so long ago that the children have lost track of their history on the island; facts are distorted, a new myth defines the primal act. Real pig becomes mythical beast to children for whom the forms of play have become the rituals of a social order. Jack's ascendancy over the group begins when the children's fears distort the natural objects around them: twigs 20 Ibid., p. 14. become creepers, shadows become demons. I have already discussed the visual imagery suggesting jack's demonic function. He serves as a physical manifestation of irrational forces. After an indefinite passage of time, he appears almost dehumanized, his "nose only a few inches from the humid earth." He is "dog-like" and proceeds forward "on all fours" into the "semi-darkness of the undergrowth." His cloak and clothing have been shed. Indeed, except for a "pair of tattered shorts held up by his knife-belt, he was naked." His eyes seemed "bolting and nearly mad." He has lost his ability to communicate with Ralph as he had on the first day. "He tried to convey the compulsion to track down and kill that was swallowing him up" (46). "They walked along, two continents of experience and feeling, unable to communicate" (49). When Jack first explains to Ralph the necessity to disguise himself from the pigs he wants to hunt, he rubs his face with clay and charcoal. At this point he assumes a mask, begins to dance, is finally freed from all the repressions of his past. "He capered toward Bill, and the mask was a thing on its own, behind which Jack hid, liberated from shame and self-consciousness" (58). At the moment of the dance the mask and Jack are one. The first kill, as I have noted, follows the desertion of the signal fire and the conterminous passage of a possible rescue ship. Jack, however, is still revelling in the knowledge that they have "outwitted a living thing, imposed their will upon it, taken away its life like a long and satisfying drink" (64). Note that the pig is here described as a "living thing" not as an animal; only if there is equality between victor and victim can there be significance in the triumph of one over the other. Already he has begun to obliterate the distinction between animals and men, as do primitives; already he thinks in terms of the metaphor of a ritual drinking of blood, the efficacy of which depended on the drinker's assumption of his victim's strength and spirit. Ralph and Piggy confront him with his defection of duty, his failure to behave like a responsible member of Western society. The two boys faced each other. There was the brilliant world of hunting, tactics, fierce exhilaration, skill; and there was the world of longing and baffled commonsense. Jack transferred the knife to his left hand and smudged blood over his forehead as he pushed down the plastered hair (65). Jack's unconscious gesture is a parody of the ritual of initiation in which the hunter's face is smeared with the blood of his first kill. In the subsequent struggle one of the lenses of Piggy's spectacles is broken. The dominance of reason is over; the voice of the old world is stilled. The primary images are no longer those of fire and light but those of darkness and blood. The initial link between Ralph and Jack "had snapped and fastened elsewhere." The rest of the group, however, shifts its allegiance to Jack because he has given them meat rather than something as useless as fire. Gradually, they begin to be described as "shadows" or "masks" or "savages" or "demoniac figures" and, like Jack, "hunt naked save for paint and a belt." Ralph now uses Jack's name with the recognition that "a taboo was evolving around that word too." Name and thing again become one; to use the word is to incite the bearer, who is not here a transcendent or supernatural creature but rather a small boy. But more significant, the taboo, according to Freud, is "a very primitive prohibition imposed from without (by an authority) and directed against the strongest desires of man." 11 In this new society it replaces the authority of the parents, whom the children symbolically kill when they slay the nursing sow. Now every kill becomes a sexual act, is a metaphor for childhood sexuality, an assertion of freedom from mores they had been taught to revere. The afternoon wore on, hazy and dreadful with damp heat; the sow staggered her way ahead of them, bleeding and mad, and the hunters followed, wedded to her in lust, excited by the long chase and the dropped blood. . . . The sow collapsed under them and they were heavy and fulfilled upon her (125). Every subsequent ritual fulfills not only a desire for communication and for a security to substitute for that of civilization, but also a need to liberate themselves from both the repressions of the past and those imposed by Ralph. Indeed, the projection into a beast of those impulses that they cannot accept in themselves is the beginning of a new mythology. The earlier dreams and nightmares of individual children are now shared in this mutual creation. 11.Sigmund Freud, Totem and Taboo, The Basic Writings of Sigmund Freud, trans. A. A. Brill (New York: Modern Library, 1938), p. 834. When the imaginary demons become defined by the rotting corpse and floating parachute on the mountain which the boys' terror distorts into a beast, Jack wants to track the creature down. After the next kill, the head of the pig is placed upon a stake to placate the beast. Finally one of the children, Simon, after an epileptic fit, creeps out of the forest at twilight while the others are engaged in enthusiastic dancing following a hunt. Seized by the rapture of re-enactment or perhaps terrorized by fear and night into believing that this little creature is a beast, they circle Simon, pounce on him, bite and tear his body to death. He becomes not a substitute for beast but beast itself; representation becomes absolute identification, "the mystic repetition of the initial event." 12 At the moment of Simon's death, nature speaks as it did at Christ's crucifixion: a cloud bursts; rain and wind fill the parachute on the hill and the corpse of the pilot falls or is dragged among the screaming boys. Both Simon and the dead man, beast and beast, are washed into the sea and disappear. After this complete resurgence of savagery in accepted ritual, there is only a short interval before Piggy's remaining lens is stolen, he is intentionally killed as an enemy, and Ralph, the human being, becomes hunted like beast or pig. Simon's mythic and psychological role has earlier been suggested in this essay. Undersized, subject to epileptic fits, bright-eyed, and introverted, he constantly creeps away from the others to meditate among the intricate vines of the forest. To him, as to the mystic, superior knowledge is intuitively given which he cannot communicate. When the first report of the beast-pilot reaches camp, Simon, we are told, can picture only "a human at once heroic and sick." He predicts that Ralph will " 'get back all right,' " only to be scorned as "batty" by the latter. In each case he sees the truth, but is overwhelmed with self-consciousness. During the day preceding his death, he walks away as if in a trance and stumbles upon a pig's head left in the sand in order to appease the demonic presence the children's terror has created. Shaman-like, he holds a silent and imaginary colloquy with it, a severed head covered with innumerable flies. It is itself the titled Lord of the Flies, a name applied to the Biblical demon Beelzebub and later used in Goethe's Faust, 12. Ibid., p. 834. Part 1, to describe Mephistopheles.13 From it he learns that it is the Beast, and the Beast cannot be hunted because it dwells within each child. Simon feels the advent of one of his fits. His visual as well as his auditory perception becomes distorted; the head of the pig seems to expand, an anticipation or intuition of the discovery of the pilot's corpse, whose expanding parachute causes the equally distorted perceptions of normal though frightened children. Suddenly Golding employs a startling image, "Simon was inside the mouth. He fell down and lost consciousness" (133). Laterally, this image presents the hallucination of a sensitive child about to lose control of his rational faculties. Such illusions, or auras, frequently attend the onset of an epileptic seizure. Mythologically and symbolically, it recalls the quest in which the hero is swallowed by a serpent or dragon or beast whose belly represents the underworld, undergoes a ritual death in order to win the elixer to revitalize his stricken society, and returns with his knowledge to the timed world as a redeemer. So Christ, after his descent to the grave and to Hell, returns to redeem mankind from his fallen state. Psychologically, this figure of speech connoting the descent into the darkness of death represents the annihilation of the individual ego, an internal journey necessary for self-understanding, a return from the timelessness of the unconscious. When Simon wakes from his symbolic death, he suddenly realizes that he must confront the beast on the mountain because "what else is there to do?" Earlier he had been unable to express himself or give advice. Now he is relieved of "that dreadful feeling of the pressure of personality." When he discovers the corrupted corpse hanging from the rock, he first frees it in compassion though it is surrounded by flies, and then staggers unevenly down to report to the others. He attempts to assume a communal role from which his strangeness and nervous seizures formerly isolated him. Redeemer and scapegoat, he becomes the victim of the group he seeks to enlighten. In death- before he is pulled into the sea-the flies which have moved to his head from the bloodstained pig and from the decomposing body of the man are replaced by the phosphorescent creatures of the deep. Halo-like, these "moonbeam-bodied creatures" attend the seer who has been denied into the 13.Ibid. formlessness and freedom of the ocean. "Softly, surrounded by a fringe of inquisitive bright creatures, itself a silver shape beneath the steadfast constellations, Simon's dead body moved out toward the open sea" (142).14 Piggy's death, soon to follow Simon's, is foreshadowed when the former proclaims at council that there is no beast, " 'What would a beast eat?' " " 'Pig.' " " 'We eat pig,' " he rationally answers. " 'Piggy' " (77) is the emotional response, resulting in a juxtaposition of words which imply Piggy's role and Golding's meaning. At Piggy's death his body twitches "like a pig's after it has been killed." Not only has his head been smashed, but also the conch, symbol of order, is simultaneously broken. A complex group of metaphors unite to form a total metaphor involving Piggy and the pig, hunted and eaten by the children, and the pig's head which is at once left to appease the beast's hunger and is the beast itself. But the beast is within, and the children are defined by the very objects they seek to destroy. In these associated images we have the whole idea of a communal and sacrificial feast and a symbolic cannibalism, all of which Freud discussed in Totem and Taboo. Here the psychology of the individual contributes the configurations for the development of religion. Indeed, the events of Lord of the Flies imaginatively parallel the patterns which Freud detects in primitive mental processes. Having populated the outside world with demons and spirits which are projections of their instinctual nature, these children-and primitive men-must then unconsciously evolve new forms of worship and laws, which manifest themselves in taboos, the oldest form of social repression. With the exception of the first kill-in which the children still imagine they are playing at hunting-the subsequent deaths assume a ritual form; the pig is eaten communally by all and the head is left for the "beast," whose role consists in sharing the feast. This is much like the "public ceremony" 15 described by Freud in which the sacri- 14.The reader will find it worthwhile to compare Donald R. Spangler's "Simon," reprinted on pp. 211-215 in this volume, with Professor Rosenfield's view of Simon.-Eds. 15.There are further affinities to Sartre's Les Mouches. fice of an animal provided food for the god and his worshipers. The complex relationships within the novel between the "beast," the pigs which are sacrificed, the children whose asocial impulses are externalized in the beast-this has already been discussed. So we see that, as Freud points out, the "sacrificing community, its god [the 'beast'], and the sacrificial animal are of the same blood," 16 members of a clan. The pig, then, may be regarded as a totem animal, an "ancestor, a tutelary spirit and protector";17 it is, in any case, a part of every child. The taboo or prohibition against eating particular parts of the totem animal coincides with the children's failure to eat the head of the pig. It is that portion which is set aside for the "beast." Just as Freud describes the primitive feast, so the children's festive meal is accompanied by a frenzied ritual in which they temporarily release their forbidden impulses and represent the kill. To consume the pig and to re-enact the event is not only to assert a "common identity" 18 but also to share a "common responsibility" for the deed. By this means the children assuage the enormity of having killed a living thing. None of the boys is excluded from the feast. The later ritual, in which Simon, as a human substitute identified with the totem, is killed, is in this novel not an unconscious attempt to share the responsibility for the killing of a primal father in prehistoric times, as Freud states; rather, it is here a social act in which the participants celebrate their new society by commemorating their severance from the authority or the civilized state. Because of the juxtaposition of Piggy and pig, the eating of pig at the communal feast might be regarded as the symbolic cannibalism by which the children physically partake of the qualities of the slain and share responsibility for their crime. (It must be remembered that, although Piggy on a symbolic level represents the light of reason and the authority of the father, as a human being he shares that bestiality and irrationality which to Golding dominate all men, even the most rational or civilized.) In the final action, Ralph is outlawed by the children and hunted like an animal. One boy, Roger, sharpens a stick at 16. Totem and Taboo, p. 878. 17. Ibid., p. 808, 18. Ibid., p. 914. both ends so that it will be ready to receive the severed head of the boy as if he were a pig. Jack keeps his society together because it, like the brother horde of William Robertson Smith19 and Freud, "is based on complicity in the common crimes."20 All share the guilt of having killed Simon, of hunting Ralph down. In his flight Ralph, seeing the grinning skull of a pig, thinks of it as a toy and remembers the early days on the island when all were united in play. In the play world, the world of day, the world of the novel's openin